Text Chapter 20
Text Chapter 18
Grammar Text Table of Contents
Chapter 19
Transformations.
This is actually half of the study of Generative Transformational Grammar. So far we have studied only the generative part (basic sentence patterns and elaboration of those patterns). Now we need to go beyond those basic sentence patterns and elaborations to situations wherein we produce sentences that vary from basic patterns. Be aware that different grammarians differ as to what is a basic sentence pattern and what goes beyond basic sentence patterns. They have different reasons for their choosing of differing patterns as basic. My purpose in this grammar is to produce a grammar that is learnable. Therefore, I have chosen the smallest number of patterns wherein the clause can be elaborated in all of its parts. Whatever parts of the sentence cannot be managed in my basic patterns must be examined as transformations. (Note: there is a movement in TG grammar research to move most or all transformations into the area of generation along with basic sentence patterns. Although the researchers are probably right on target, their procedures are complicated--too complicated for our present purposes.)
Transformations are adjustments in sentences that occur in order to achieve results that cannot be achieved through basic sentence patterns. There are quite a few transformations. We will examine just a few of the most important ones. I hope that through the examination of these few, you will gain an understanding of the field of transformations which will enable you, as the need arises, to understand other less common transformations. They are not infinite, but if we tried to examine them all, we would begin to think them infinite.
There are three basic forms of transformations: Addition, Deletion, and Movement. We will examine each of these in several kinds of clauses (or sentences) including the following: Commands (Imperative); Questions (Interrogative) including WH-Questions and Yes/No Questions; Passive Voice; Negative; and Initial "There" sentences.
T-Command.
We will start with one of the simplest transformation: the deletion transformation that produces a command form.
In the English language we don't say such things as
1) You close the window.
Instead, we say
2) Close the window.
With this deletion, we have, in the simplest sense of the word, transformed a basic sentence pattern into a new pattern that is not included among the basic sentence patterns. We could call it T-Command which, in traditional terms, creates the sentence pattern with the "you-understood subject." This transformation is so common and simple that many grammarians don't even call it a transformation. But it fits with the syntactic philosophy I am employing in this text. Basic sentence patterns must have an overt subject, not an understood one. Thus, the command form is not a basic sentence pattern and must be produced through transformation. The same would be true of a host of sentences wherein constituents have elided elements. We won't go into these here because such a discussion would be nearly endless and would provide little advantage in your understanding of English grammar.
QUESTIONS.
T-Yes/No.
Questions that may be answered with "yes" or "no" are formed out of basic sentence patterns through a combination of additions and movements. Consider the following:
1) Basic sentence pattern: The door is white.
2) Transformed into a yes/no question: Is the door white?
This is a simple movement transformation wherein the linking verb is fronted.
3) Basic sentence pattern: The door has been white.
4) Transformed into a yes/no question: Has the door been white?
Notice that, if there is an auxiliary verb in front of the main verb, only the auxiliary
verb is fronted.
5) Basic sentence pattern: The door has been turning white.
6) Transformed into a yes/no question: Has the door been turning white?
Only the first word in the auxiliary moves.
T-DO
Another form of yes/no question requires the addition of the DO (do, did, does).
1) Basic sentence pattern: The door turned white.
2) Transformed into a yes/no question: Did the door turn white? (addition
of DO, movement of DO to the front of the clause)
3) Basic sentence pattern: The door turns white.
4) Transformed into a Yes/No question: Does the door turn white?
T-Do with transitive verbs
Basic sentence patterns with transitive verbs with no auxiliaries before them usually add DO and move it to the front.
1) Basic sentence pattern: John reads the newspaper.
2) Transformed sentence: Does John read the newspaper?
That is because it is not considered grammatical to ask the following:
3) Reads John the newspaper?
It is interesting to note that such a question is easily understood in English, but we do
not accept it as standard English.
T-WH
Most questions require a more complex answer than yes/no. Most such questions are created by another combination of additions and movements. (Note: The WH- is derived from the list of questions a reporter asks: Who, What, When, Why, Where, How. Oops! One of those is an H. We call it WH- anyway.)
1) Basic sentence pattern: The earth moved in my arms. (I'm such a
romantic!)
2) Transformed into a WH question: Why did the earth move in my arms? (Because you
were there, stupid!) Notice that, just as in some yes/no questions, Do is
added or an existing auxiliary or a linking verb is fronted in order to create the
question. Also, a WH word must be added to the front of the sentence to complete the
transformation. Below are a couple more examples.
3) Basic sentence pattern: The moon is green cheese.
4) Transformed sentence: When is the moon green cheese?
Linking verb is fronted.
5) Basic sentence pattern: The moon seems sad.
6) Transformed sentence: Why does the moon seem sad?
Some linking verbs don't move.
One additional WH movement bears mentioning. In this case there is really no legitimate basic sentence that the transformation comes from. We have to create one to demonstrate the movement that occurs.
1) Basic sentence pattern: John is who. (This is a statement, not
a question.)
2) Transformed sentence: Who is John? (Notice that the answer to the
question is not the original matrix sentence. It might be
3) John is the second man on the left.)
T-Passive
You know very well that I don't define things unless there is a special reason to do so. You are probably itching for me to define the passive sentence. But I won't. Learn to recognize it from its form and examine it as to its semantics. Notice that the actor in a passive sentence (if it is mentioned at all), is part of a prepositional phrase in the predicate and that which is acted upon is in the subject noun phrase slot. This is very different from what occurs in the normal basic sentence pattern. Thus, I do not count the passive sentence among the basic sentence patterns. My interpretation requires us to dip into semantics, but it simplifies our recognition of basic sentence patterns and presents the passive voice as a transformed sentence pattern (which seems simpler to me). I hope you approve.
1) Basic sentence pattern: The thief shot the store clerk.
2) Transformed to passive voice: The store clerk was shot by the thief.
Both addition and movement are performed:
1) A preposition is added to turn the subject into a prepositional phrase.
2) This phrase is moved to the end of the sentence.
3) The direct object is fronted to become the subject.
4) An auxiliary verb word is added.
Keep in mind that many writing teachers don't want to see the passive voice very often. Often this is pure prejudice. Sometimes, however, it is justified. Notice how tempting it is to leave out the actor in the passive form.
1) Actor stated: The bus was driven off the road by me.
(I didn't do it; but, if I had done it, this would be an admission of guilt.)
2) No actor stated: The bus was driven off the road. (Using this form, I stay
out of jail and keep my driver's license.)
In basic sentence patterns other than #2, things get a bit more complex, but the idea is the same: that which acts becomes the object of a preposition and moves to the end of the sentence (or is left out of the sentence); that which is acted upon is fronted as the subject.
T-Neg
For the native speaker, this transformation (or group of transformations) is so obvious that it needs no explanation; but, for the non-native speaker of English, it poses quite a challenge. Usually, these transformations involve one or more additions. First, it is necessary for a negating word (or, at least, a piece of a negating word) to be added:
I will drive.
I will not drive.
Notice, however, that the above sentence contains an auxiliary verb. What happens when it isn't there:
I drive.
I do not (or don't) drive.
That means that there is a transform rule that says if you don't have an
auxiliary word, you have to add do in order to complete the T-neg transformation.
A good enough rule for most situations. We have a number of ways of
stating the negative in English. This hardly* makes a
dent in the possibilities. But it will do for the present study.
(*One of the other ways)
T-There
A host of sentences (often poor ones) in English begin with "there." I'm not going to describe the entire transformative action. It is tedious. I'll simply demonstrate it.
1) A house is on the corner.
2) There is a house on the corner.
Notice that the subject got displaced and is now located after the verb.
What a shame! Many small children will lose points on curmudgeon grammar quizzes
because they think "there" is the subject. And it's not!
As I said before, there are numerous transformations. The above are a few of the most common. They are what makes the language dynamic. Consider how strapped you would be if you only had the basic sentence patterns with which to communicate. The main task is to recognize when a sentence or clause is not following the basic sentence pattern so that you can account for the difference in terms of sentence constituents. Remember that we are dealing with a phrase structure grammar. If the phrasing has undergone transformation, we must be able to follow these transformations rationally in order to account for the grammatical structure of the sentence.
Chapter 19 Homework Assignment: From material you happen to be reading, type out examples of all of the above transformations and explain them.